Class 8 Geography

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 2 Population Dynamics

Population refers to the total number of people 1 inhabiting an area, a region or a country.

• It is these people, who use resources of a nation, produce goods and services, help to develop its economy and society and create the social and cultural environment. In this way, people themselves act like an important resource of a countiy, known as the human resource.
• Thus, population forms the centre around which all the other elements revolve.
• It acts as a reference point for studying various aspects of a nation, like its economic growth and development, health care, literacy and standard of living of people.

Population is a dynamic phenomenon. The numbers, distribution and composition of the population are constantly changing. Population Dynamics is the branch of science that focuses on the changes in the size and age composition of populations and tries to find out how, when and why these changes occur.

The five key properties of a population are:

1. Spatial distribution

2. Size and Density

Population by Continent: 1980 to 2050:

[In millions, except per cent (4,453 represents 4,453,000,000). As of midyear]

World Population by Country (2023):

3. Age structure

4. Birth Rate (Natality)

5. Death Rate (Mortality)

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 2 Distribution Of Population In The World

Population distribution:

Population distribution refers to how members of a population are dispersed physically in a specific area.

• The population of the world is unevenly distributed. About 90 per cent of the world population lives in 10 per cent of its land area.
• The ten most populous countries of the world contribute about 60 per cent of the world’s population. Of these 10 countries, six are located in Asia.
• When early man settled down and started practising agriculture, in about 8000 B.C., the population of the world was approximately 5 million.
• There was a gradual increase in population over the years.
• However, the Industrial Revolution gave rise to rapid population growth.
• Around 1800, the world population had reached one billion; the second billion was achieved in only 130 years (1930),
• The third billion in 30 years (1960), the fourth billion in 15 years (1974), and the fifth billion in only 13 years (1987).
• During the 20th century alone, the population in the world grew from 1.65 billion to 6 billion. According to the United

Nations the global human population has reached eight billion in mid-November 2022, and India has surpassed China as the most populated country in April 2023. This rapid growth in population is called Population explosion.

Population Density

Population Density refers to the number of people living in an area of one square kilometre

Density of Population = Population/Area

The density of population differs from area to area. Some areas are thickly populated, whereas others are moderately populated. Besides, there are many areas, which areuninhabited. Population density of the world is estimated at around 50 persons per square kilometre, i.e., 50 people live in every square kilometre of land.

• This includes all continental and island land areas, including Antarctica.
• Monaco is the most densely populated country in the world, with a population density of 26,105 people per sq. kilometre.
• Many parts of the world are densely populated with more than 200 persons per sq. kilometre.
• These are the North-Eastern part of the USA, North-Western part of Europe, South, South-East and East Asia.
• Mongolia is the least densely populated country in the world. The five least densely populated countries with having population of 10 million are Australia, Canada, Kazakhstan, the Russian Federation and Bolivia.

Among the continents, Asia is the most populated continent in the world with a population of approximately 4.7 billion, occupying one-fifth of the world’s land area.

• However, the country with the highest population density in Asia is Bangladesh. Europe has a population of about 742 million people.
• Around 9.3 per cent of the world’s population lives in Europe.
• The north-western part of Europe, comprising the highly industrialised countries like the UK, Germany, Denmark and France, is heavily populated.
• This is because of the mild climate, availability of diverse natural resources and development of highly advanced industries that this region has a high density of population.
• In North America and South America, over 65 per cent of the population lives in one of the three most populous countries, i.e., the United States, Brazil and Mexico.
• These areas are concentrated in the fertile Temperate regions.
• Africa with a population of 1.5 billion, representing approximately 18 per cent of the population.
• In Africa, the densely populated areas include the Nile Valley, Mediterranean Coast, Guinea Coast and coastal South Africa.
• Mauritius is the most densely populated African country.

Many areas of the world have a moderate density of population.

• There are 11 to 50 persons per sq. km in these areas.
• These include central China, the Deccan plateau of India, Eastern Europe, the Central part of the USA, Russia and Tropical Western Africa.
• This is due to the prevalence of extreme climatic conditions, inadequate rainfall and scarcity of important natural resources.
• Areas near the North and South Poles, the hot and the cold deserts and high rainfall zones near the Equator have a very low density of population.
• These are the sparsely populated regions of the world with less than 01 person per sq. km.

Factors Influencing Population Density

The population of the world is unevenly distributed. There are many factors responsible for this uneven distribution of population.

Population from 1950 to 2021:

These include the following:

1. Relief:

The plains and gentle slopes are more densely populated than the mountainous or hilly areas.

• This is because such areas are favourable for agriculture, building houses and other establishments, industrialisation and transportation.
• The Ganga Plains of India are among the most densely populated areas of the world, whereas the Himalayas are comparatively scarcely populated

2. Climate:

Climate greatly influences the concentration of population in an area. Areas with extreme climates, such as very hot or cold deserts or harsh climates, are thinly populated.

For example:

Mongolia, a desert country in Asia, is one of the most sparsely populated countries in the world.

• It has very little arable land and much of its area is covered by grassy Steppes.
• Australia also has a low density of population due to vast stretches of desert areas and mainly arid, inaccessible interiors and remote coasts called the outbacks.
• Botswana, Iceland, Namibia, Suriname and northern Canada are some of the other sparsely populated countries of the world.
• Areas with a moderate climate attract settlements.

For example:

The Mediterranean regions, having warm to hot, dry summers and mild to cool, wet winters Eire densely populated due to their pleasant climate.

3. Soil and Water:

Fertile soils are needed for agricultural and allied activities. So the areas which have fertile loamy soils and can support intensive agriculture, have high density of population.

• Similarly, areas with poor soils are thinly populated.
• Water is a basic necessity of life. It is needed for drinking, bathing, cooking, washing clothes, for cattle, crops, industries and navigation.
• That is why river valleys are among the most densely populated regions of the world.

4. Natural Resources:

Areas which have abundant natural resources, like minerals and power resources, attract large populations.

• Industries are set up in areas where minerals and power resources (mineral fuels, water power, solar energy, biomass, geothermal and wind energy) are easily available.
• These industries generate employment for both skilled and semi-skilled workers, who move to these areas and make them densely populated.

For example:

The Kobe-Osaka region of Japan is thickly populated because of the presence of several industries.

5. Urbanisation:

Cities attract more people, especially in developing countries, as they offer better employment opportunities, educational and health-care facilities, and better means of transport and communication. Better civic amenities and the attraction of city life lead to the migration of rural people to the cities, and the cities grow in size.

6. Political, Social and Cultural Factors:

Countries which have stable governments tend to have a high density of population.

• People usually tend to move away from places where there is social and political unrest.
• Groups of people based on ethnicity, religion occupation tend to live in communities in a particular region.
• Besides, some places attract more people due to their religious, historical or cultural significance

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 2 Overpopulation

Overpopulation refers to the condition when the human population is more than the available natural resources which can support it.

• This is caused by increased birth rates, declining mortality rates, breakthroughs in medical science and migration of people to a particular area.
• When there exists a state of balance between population and the available resources in a particular area, it is known as the optimum population.
• At this stage, people have sufficient job opportunities and enjoy high standards of living.
• This balance gets disturbed when the population of an area increases or decreases drastically in comparison to the availability of resources.
• Thus, population growth beyond a certain level leads to problems

Impact of Overpopulation

The following are the impacts of overpopulation:

Pressure on Existing Resources:

As the human population increases, it puts pressure on the existing natural resources such as cultivable land, fresh water, fossil fuels and minerals.

• This leads to degradation and depletion of resources and contributes to an incredible decline in the quality of life.
• Excessive human consumption of non¬ renewable resources can outstrip the availability of these resources shortly and remarkably deplete them for future generations.

Shortage of Basic Necessities:

Overpopulation causes shortage of food, fresh water, shelter, health-care and educational facilities and other basic necessities of life.

• This lowers the standard of living as it creates stress on the vital resources for survival.
• Consequently, it makes the poor to become poorer and they are forced to opt for poor living conditions for survival.

Unemployment and Poverty:

Increased population demands more job opportunities.

• These cannot be created with the existing resources and create stiff competition for the fewer available jobs.
• This leads to unemployment and poverty, which in turn causes problems like increased crime rates, conflicts and violence.

Destruction of Natural Habitats of Animals:

Theincreasedloss offorestlands forcultivation and for human settlements for the growing population leads to the destruction of the natural habitats of a large number of animals and plant species, threatens their existence and finally causes their extinction.

Increased Use of Energy Resources:

Overpopulation results in increased consumption of resources.

• The more the number of people, the more is the number of goods produced by industries, the more the number of vehicles used, and the more the use of energy resources like coal, petroleum and natural gas.
• All these contribute to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions and thereby, global warming and climate change.

Increase in Human Diseases:

According to the WHO, overpopulation is one of the main causes of the increased occurrence of human diseases.

• Overpopulation worsens environmental and social factors like pollution, malnutrition, education and healthcare facilities, and creates overcrowded, unhygienic living conditions in slums.
• These make poor people vulnerable to many infectious diseases. Diseases like tuberculosis, malaria, dysentery, HIV, etc., spread faster in overpopulated countries.

Increase in Cost of Living:

Increasing demand for resources and fewer supplies raise the price of commodities and thereby, increase the cost of living.

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 2 Underpopulation

Underpopulation refers to the condition when the size of population of an area is too small to fully utilise the available resources of that area. In such a situation the resources of a nation remain underutilised. The Prairies of North America, Canada, Equatorial Congo, parts of Australia and New Zealand, Russia and Namibia are underpopulated.

Underpopulation is usually caused by

• Increase in death rate caused by natural calamities like floods, earthquakes, etc.
• A falling birth rate, and
• An increase in the emigration of a large population to another area.

It is generally believed that large countries with small populations are underpopulated whereas small countries with large populations are overpopulated. But this is not correct as overpopulation and underpopulation is not related to the density or size of the population. It depends on the availability and effective utilisation of resources of that area by its people.

Impact of Underpopulation

Underpopulation has both positive and negative impacts.

Positive Impacts:

• The positive impacts of underpopulation are the following:
• Food, shelter, education, healthcare and other amenities are available to everyone.
• There are enough resources for everybody to utilise.
• Underpopulated countries experience little or no congestion.
• There are fewer people, therefore less resources are required and therefore there are fewer of industries and less waste generated. Consequently, there is less pollution and environmental degradation.
• Job opportunities are ample for all those willing to work, as there are fewer people. Income levels and standards of living are usually high in underpopulated areas.

Negative Impacts:

• The negative impacts of underpopulation are the following:
• Resources remain highly underutilised in underpopulated countries.
• Due to a lack of adequate manpower, production levels remain low, and the cost of hiring labour is quite high.

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 2 Factors Affecting The Population Of A Place

Population is a dynamic phenomenon. Its number, distribution and composition keep on changing constantly.

Population change:

Population change refers to the change in several inhabitants of an area during a specific period.

The major factors that bring about a change in the population ofa place, whether in an individual country or the whole world, are the following:

Birth Rate:

Birth rate, also known as Crude Birth Rate (CBR) is the number of live births per thousand persons in a year.

It is calculated as:

CBR – Bi/P × 1000

Where, Bi = live births during the year and P = Mid-year population of the area.

Death Rate:

Death rate or Crude Death Rate (CDR) is the number of deaths per thousand persons in a year. It is calculated as:

CDR – D/P × 1000

Where D = number of deaths; P = Mid-year population of that year.

When birth rates are higher than death rates, the population of an area increases

Migration:

Migration is the movement of people across regions and territories. When people migrate from one place to another within a territory or a country, it is called internal migration.

• When migration occurs between countries, it is called international migration.
• Internal migration does not change the size of the population but influences the distribution of the population within a country.
• When people migrate from one place to another, the place they move from is called the ‘Place of Origin’ and the place they move to is called the ‘Place of Destination’.
• Due to migration of people, the place of origin shows a decrease in population, whereas the place of destination shows an increase in population.
• Migrants who move into a new country are called immigrants, and the process is called immigration.
• Similarly, when migrants move out of a country, they are called emigrants and the process is called emigration.
• The same people are both immigrants and emigrants.

For example:

People who left Ireland during the famine were referred to as emigrants by the people left behind in Ireland.

• The same people, when they arrived in the USA, were referred to as immigrants by the Americans.
• People move out of their country due to a lack of employment opportunities, poor living conditions, political turmoil, unpleasant climatic conditions, natural disasters, epidemics and socio-economic backwardness.
• We will read about migration in detail in the next chapter.

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 2 Composition Of Population

Each region or country has a diversity ofpopulation based on their age, sex, place of residence, education, occupation and life expectancy. These diverse features help us to understand the various qualities of that population and enable the governments to plan and implement different policies based on these determinants.

Age Composition

Age Composition of a population refers to the number of people in different age groups in a country.

• It is one of the important characteristics of a population. This is because a person’s age influences every aspect of his life like his health, capacity to perform, working habits and needs and aspirations.
• Consequently, the number and percentage of different categories of people determine the population’s social and economic structure.

The population of a country is usually grouped into three categories:

• Children (generally below 15 years): This group is economically unproductive and needs to be provided with the necessities like food, clothing, shelter, education and medical care.
• Adults (15-59 years): They are economically productive and biologically reproductive. They comprise the working population.
• Aged (Above 59 years): They can be economically productive, though they are at the stage of retirement from service. They may work voluntarily, but they are not eligible for employment through recruitment.

Thus, children and old people aged above 59 do not contribute in production and constitute the dependent population of a country.

• In the developed countries of the world, the percentage of dependent population is low.
• The world is home to 1.8 billion young people between the ages of 10 and 24 years. This means that 9 out of 10 people in the world belonging to this age group live in less developed countries of the world.
• With 356 million people in the 10-24 years old (28 per cent of India’s population), India has the world’s largest youth population. Two-thirds of India’s population is less than 35 years.

Sex Ratio

Sex Ratio refers to the number of females per 1000 males in the population. In India, the sex ratio is worked out using the formula

Sex Ratio = female Population/Male Population x 1000

According to the Population Census of 2011, the sex ratio in India is 940 females per 1000 males.

• The states of Kerala and the Union Territory of Puducherry are places where the number of women is more than the number of men. Haryana has the lowest sex ratio in India, i.e., 877 females per thousand men.
• However, infamous for skewed sex ratio, Haryana saw an improvement in it with the number of females crossing 900 mark in December 2015.
• The sex ratio is an indicator of the status of womeninacountry.Itis alsoanimportant indicator to check the extent of gender equality between males and females in a society at a given time.
• In regions or countries where gender discrimination is prevalent, the sex ratio is unfavourable to women. These are the areas where there are high instances ofthe practice of female foeticide, female infanticide and domestic violence against women

Rural Urban Composition

The division of population into rural and urban is based on the location of people. This division shows how the rural and urban lifestyles differ from each other in terms of their livelihood and social conditions.

• The age-sex occupational structure, density of population and level of development vary between rural and urban areas.
• These criteria for differentiating rural and urban populations vary from country to country.
• Generally, rural areas are those where people are engaged in primary activities, while urban areas are those where the majority ofthe working population is engaged in non-primary activities.

The rural and urban differences in Sex Ratio in Canada and Western European countries like Finland are just the opposite of those in African and Asian countries like Zimbabwe and Nepal, respectively.

In Western countries, males are more than females in rural areas, and females outnumber males in urban areas. In countries like Nepal, Pakistan and India, the case is reverse.

• The excess offemales in urban areas of USA, Canada and Europe is the result of migration of females from rural areas to workin cities.
• Since farmingin developed countries is highly mechanised it remains largely a male occupation. By contrast the Sex Ratio in Asian urban areas remains male dominated due to the predominance ofmale migration.
• In countries like India, female participation in farming activities in rural areas is fairly high.
• Shortage of housing, high cost of living, lack of job opportunities and lack of security in cities discourage women from migrating from rural to urban areas

Population Pyramid

The population Pyramid refers to the graphical representation age-sex structure ofa population. It can be drawn for any area, from a whole continent or country to an individual town, city or village.

• In this representation, the size of the population under investigation is distributed on the horizontal X-axis, whereas the Y-axis represents the age group, which is distributed from 0 to 80 years, and each is broken down to a 5-year age interval.
• The female population is shown on the right, whereas the male population is shown on the left.
• The shape of the population pyramid reflects the characteristics of the population like life expectancy, fertility rate and migration.

Based on the information deciphered from the shapes of the pyramids, they are grouped into three types.

1. Underdeveloped Countries:

The population pyramids for Underdeveloped countries like Mozambique, Somalia, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, etc. have the following characteristics:

• The pyramid is broad at the base and narrow, tapering towards the top
• The broad base shows a high birth rate and a large number of children aged below 15 years.
• The tapering top shows that though the birth rates are high, life expectancy is lower.
• Many children die in their infancy. Due to the high death rate, fewer people reach old age.
• High birth and death rates, and lower life expectancy, show that the country lacks in providing a nutritious diet, adequate medical facilities, education and a decent standard of living to its people.

2. Developing Countries:

The population pyramids for developing countries like India have the following characteristics:

• The pyramid is broad at the base, has a less steep , narrowing top and a slightly broader top
• The broad base indicates high birth rate, but it is less broad as in the case of developed countries due to decreasing birth rates.
• The less steep narrowing pyramid indicates a falling death rate, especially among young people and a large number of people of working age.
• It’s life expectancy. Slightly broader top shows increasing decreasing birth and death rates and increasing life expectancy, indicating that the country is improving its standards in nutrition, healthcare, education and standard of living, though much still needs to be done.

3. Developed Countries:

The population pyramids of developed countries like Japan, the USA, and Germany have the following characteristics:

• The pyramid has a narrow base, going straight and has a broader top
• The narrow base shows a low birth rate and a relatively small number of children below the age of 15.
• The straighter pyramid shows a low death rate, and the broader top shows high life expectancy and more people reaching old age.
• Lowbirth and deathrate, highlife expectancy shows that the country has higher living standards, best healthcare facilities, good quality of education and lifestyle.

A population pyramid provides useful information about the following:

• It tells us about the birth and death rates and the life expectancy (the average number of years one is expected to live).
• It shows the number of people in each age group separately for males and females.
• It tells us about the number of males and females in the working and dependent population.
• It can be used to study the future prospects of a nation in terms of economy, birth and mortality rate, sustainability of society, etc.

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 11 India: Human Resources

Human resources refer to the people who make up the workforce of an organisation, business sector or economy of a country. It is also sometimes known as ‘human capital’. They are the people, who have productive skills and abilities such as knowledge, wisdom, intelligence and sound health.

Without the existence of these human resources, it is impossible to utilise other resources of the country. Thus, people in the age group of 15 to 64 years or working age constitute the human resources of a country. These are the people who play an important role in the growth and development of a country.

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 11 India Distribution of Population In India

Geographical Distribution

Population Distribution refers to how the members of a population are dispersed physically in a specific area. Each unit ofland has a particular capacity to support people living on it.

• Hence, it is necessary to know the ratio between the number of people and the area of land available to them.
• This ratio is known as the density of population. It is defined as the number of people per unit area of land. It is usually measured in persons per sq. kilometre

Density of population: Population/Area

• The population of India as per the 2011 Census was 1,20,193,422, and the density of population was 382 persons per square kilometre.
• At present, the population of India is 1.35 billion. With 2.4 per cent ofthe world’s surface area, India accounts for 17.5 per cent world’s population.
• Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state with roughly 200 million people.
• The Union Territory of Lakshadweep is the least populous, whereas Puducherry is the most populous Union Territory.
• More than half of India’s population lives in the five most populous States, i.e., Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh

Although Rajasthan is the largest state in terms of size, its population contributes only

5.5 per cent of India’s total population. States like Sikkim and Lakshadweep have the lowest population. India’s population is unevenly distributed.

• Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and the North-Eastern States are thinly populated.
• This is because of the hilly terrain in these States, which makes it difficult to grow crops and develop rail and road links.
• The desert regions of Gujarat and Rajasthan also have a sparse population. However, the plains of northern India and the coastal plains are thickly populated

Rural-Urban Distribution

The division of the population into rural and urban is based on residence.

• Further, the age-sex-occupational structure, density of population and level of development vary between rural and urban areas.
• In general terms, rural areas are those where people are engaged in primary activities, and urban areas are those where the majority of the working population is engaged in secondary and tertiary activities.

According to the 2011 Census in India, 68.8 per cent of people live in rural areas and about 31.2 per centof  people live in towns and cities.

Between 2001 and 2011, the growth of India’s urban population was slightly more than rural population.

• The level of urbanisation increased from 27.81% in the 2001 Census, while the proportion of rural population declined from 72.19% to 68.84%.
• Uttar Pradesh has the maximum number of people living in rural areas, whereas Maharashtra has the largest share of India’s urban population.
• Migration of people from rural to urban areas plays an important role in changing the composition and distribution of the population.
• In India, people move from rural to urban areas because of adverse conditions of poverty and unemployment and lack of amenities in rural areas.
• It is also due to the ‘pull ’ of urban areas in terms of increased employment opportunities, higher wages and better living conditions.

Sex Ratio

Sex Ratio refers to the number of females per thousand males in the population. In India, the sex ratio has always remained unfavourable to females.

• According to Census 2011, the sex ratio in India is 940, i.e., there are 940 females per thousand males.
• The main reasons for the low sex ratio in India include preference for male child, the practice of female foeticide, female infanticide, domestic violence against women, lack of education and skills among women and their lower socio-economic status.

The government of India has started many schemes to improve the status of women in India like Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Scheme, (save the girl child, educate the girl child) meant to prevent gender biased sex selective elimination (female foeticide); to ensure survival and protection of the girl child; and to ensure education and participation of the girl child.

Some other schemes include the Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of:

• Adolescent Girls, Sabla, Mahile E-haat, i.e., a direct online marketing platform to support women entrepreneurs, Self Help Groups and NGOS to showcase products and services given by them,
• One Stop Centres with Nirbhaya Fund, to be established at various locations in India for providing shelter, police desk, legal, medical and counselling to victims of violence,
• Swadhar Greh, for rehabilitation of women in difficult circumstances, Indira Gandhi Matriva Sahyog Yojna, to provide conditional cash transfer to pregnant and lactating women.
• All these schemes are aimed at educating women so that they can stand on their own feet and can live with dignity and self-respect.

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 11 India: Skilled And Unskilled Human Resource

The human resources of a country can be broadly grouped into two categories:

1. Skilled Human Resources

These are the people who are capable of working independently and efficiently. They have special skill or ability, achieved by a special kind of education or training. They include accountants, artists, computer operators, doctors, electricians, engineers, mechanics, policemen, soldiers, plumbers and teachers.

2. Unskilled Human Resources

These are the people who do not possess any special training or skill and whose work involves the performance of simple duties which require the exercise of little or no independent judgement or previous experience , although a familiarity with the occupational environment is necessary. These include farmers, labourers, peons, domestic servants, sweepers, washermen, porters, watchmen, cleaners, etc.

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 11 India: Role Of Health And Education In Human Resource Development

Human Resource Development refers to the process of transforming human beings into highly productive humans, bringing with effective inputs of health, education and skill.

• This is also known as human capital formation. It is this human capital, which effectively utilises the natural resources ofa nation and leads to its growth and development.
• It is all the more important in a labour-surplus country like India, where two-thirds of its population is below 35 years of age.
• It is expected that India is likely to have the world’s largest workforce by 2027, with a billion people in the age group of 15 and 64.
• This huge workforce can be transformed into an asset by providing them proper health care, education and skills.
• The statistical indicator of estimating human development in each nation is
• Human Development Index (HDI). It is the combination of Life Expectancy Index, Education Index and Income Index.
• India ranks 131st in a list of 188 countries in a report prepared by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)’s Human Development Index.

Life free from illness and ailment and living a reasonably long life span are indicative ofa healthy life. The availability of pre- and postnatal health care facilities to reduce infant mortality and post-delivery deaths among mothers, old age health care, adequate nutrition, and individual safety are important measures of a healthy and reasonably long life.

• India has done reasonably well in some of the health indicators like decline in death rate, infant mortality rate and birth rate and increase in life expectancy at birth.
• The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare launches and implements various schemes to improve the health of the people by providing public health services, vaccinating people against diseases and raising awareness on various health issues
• Education is an important factor for the development of human capital. It is through education that human beings acquire the necessary knowledge, information and awareness.
• It also imparts them with the skill for getting a job, starting their own business, earning a livelihood and maintaining a decent standard of living.
• This in turn, leads to the growth of the economy and the development of a nation.
• In India, the Ministry of Human Resources Development is responsible for providing quality education from the primary to higher secondary, university education, technical education, skill development and adult education.

Through Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan or Right to Education, all children in the age group of 6 to 14 years are provided free education. To check the number of dropouts from schools, to encourage higher attendance and to provide healthy, nutritious food, midday meals are provided to children in government schools.

The government of India has also started the National Skill India Mission or Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojna from 2015 to provide skills for getting gainful employment and ensuring career progression that meets the aspirations of the people.

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 11 India: Impact Of Skilled Human Resource

Skilled Human Resource is the key to a country’s prosperity. It adds to the productive capacity and generation of income. The productive capacity of the people depends on their education, knowledge and skill.

• With greater knowledge and skill, people can get gainful employment. This enhances their income and enables them to maintain a decent standard of living.
• They provide quality education, nutritious food and healthy living to their children.
• Since they have the money, they can afford to buy several products and provide employment to others.

For example:

A Civil Engineer is a highly skilled person. He helps to develop the country’s infrastructure and thus promotes its growth and development.

• He has the resources to buy several consumer goods.
• He utilises the services of some skilled and unskilled people like doctors, teachers, lawyers, mechanics, drivers, electricians, plumbers, masons, farmers, watchmen, porters, washermen, etc.
• Thus, educated and skilled people utilise the services of more people and then turn them into human resources.
• This virtuous cycle transforms a large population into human resources

The skilled human resources impact the socio-economic development of a country in the following ways:

They use their skill and knowledge in the systematic utilisation of the country’s natural resources and contribute in its economic growth and development.

• They contribute to technological progress and bring out innovations in various fields.
• They use their skills to enhance the productivity and thereby, enhance the total income ofthe country. This, is turn, improves the per capita income of the people
• They provide quality education to their children and help in the development of future citizens of the country.
• Since they are highly educated and skilled, they give up superstitions and outdated rituals.
• They also give up discrimination based on religion, caste, creed and sex and thus help in the growth of an equitable society.

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 9 India: Climate

Cimate plays a decisive role in the day-to-day living conditions of the people of a region. It is the climate that determines their habits and habitats.

• The houses they live in, the crops they grow, the clothes they wear, the festivals they celebrate are all influenced by the climate.
• This makes it necessary to understand what climate is and how it shapes the lives of the people of a particular place.
• The state of the atmosphere that we observe over an area at any point in time is called Weather.

For example:

A day may be hot, cold, windy, cloudy, or rainy. However, these weather conditions fluctuate often even within a day. For example, it might be hot and sunny in the noon but after an hour, it might start raining, and it becomes a rainy day.

• However, a common pattern of atmospheric conditions can be observed over a few weeks or months, i.e., days are hot or cool, calm or windy, cloudy or bright and dry or wet.
• The sum total of weather conditions and variations over a large area for a long period of time (more than 30 years) is called the Climate
• Based on the generalised monthly atmospheric conditions prevailing in a region, the year is divided into seasons such as summer, winter, etc.

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 9 India Climate Of India

India has a tropical monsoon type of climate. This is because India lies in the tropical belt and its climate is influenced by the monsoon winds which are largely confined to the Tropics, i.e., between 20°N £md 20°S.

• The main characteristics of this type of climate are relatively high summer temperatures and cold dry winters.
• However, the Himalayas in the north and the Indian Ocean in the south provide distinctive climatic conditions to India.
• The Himalayan ranges protect northern India from the cold winds of Central Asia and Siberia and give it a sub-tropical climate i.e., summers are hot winters are cool.
• The Indian Ocean in the south gives it a tropical monsoon climate more typical of the tropical zone than that of the temperate zone.
• Despite the broad unity of the monsoon type of climate, variations in climate occur in different regions of the country.

For example:

• The climatic conditions of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh in the north differ from that of Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the south; yet all of these States have a similar monsoon type of climate.
• These variations are expressed in the pattern of winds, temperature and rainfall, rhythm of seasons and the degree of wetness or dryness.
• These regional diversities are known as the subtypes of monsoon climate.

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 9 India Factors Affecting The Climate Of India

The factors that affect the climate of any place are called climatic controls.

The factors that influence the climate of India axe the following:

1. Latitude

Due to the curvature of the earth, the amount of solar energy received varies according to the latitude. Consequently, temperatures generally decrease from the Equator towards the Poles.

• The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of the country and the northern portion lies in the warm temperate zone or commonly known as sub-tropical climate and the southern portion lies in the tropical zone.
• The warm temperate or sub-tropical climate of the northern zone gives it cold winter season and ha ot summer season.
• The southern tropical climatic zone of India is warmer than the north and does not have a clear-cut winter season.
• Similarly, the northern zone does not have the mid-day Sun almost vertically overhead during any part of the year, while the southern zone has the mid-day Sun almost vertically overhead at least twice eveiy year.
• Thus, India’s climate has the characteristics of both tropical and sub-tropical climates.

2. Altitude

As one goes from the surface to higher altitudes, the atmosphere becomes less dense and the temperature decreases.

• There is a decrease of 1°C for every 166 m rise in height.
• India has mountains to the north, which have an average height of about 6,000 m. India also has a vast coastal area where the maximum elevation is about 30 m. So the mountains are cooler than the plains.
• For example, Ooty (Udhagamandalam) has much lower temperature than Kochi, because of the altitude.

3. Winds

The winds which have an overwhelming influence on the climate of India are the monsoon winds. These winds bring rain to the entire Indian subcontinent. Tibet lies in the ‘rainshadow’ of the Himalayas so it does not get rain.

• Besides the monsoon winds, there are other winds which affect the climate of India. The hot and dry winds which blow over the plains of northern India, cause heat waves during the summers.
• Similarly, the winds blowing from the north-west during the winters cause cold waves in northern India.

4. Mountains

Mountains act as a barrier and interfere the free flow of air and thereby modify the climate. The climates on the two sides of a mountain range are so different at times that mountains become climatic divide.

• Rainfall increases higher up as the moist air is forced up slope and the contact of the air stream with the colder surface.
• Heavy cloud and rainfall occurs on the windward side of a mountain.
• The rain shadow region on the leeward side experiences less rain or remains dry. The Himalayas and the Western Ghats are classical examples which display the influence of mountains on the climate.

Without the presence of the Himalayas, the monsoon winds would have blown into Central Asia and the northern part of India would have remained dry.

• The Western Ghats get heavy rainfall on western side because they stand in the way of South West Monsoon winds which come from the Arabian Sea to the Indian peninsular.
• On the other hand, the Deccan Plateau gets less rainfall as it lies in the rain shadow area of the Western Ghats.
• In Rajasthan, the Aravalli Range lies parallel to the direction of the South West Monsoon winds. So it is unable to stop the moisture laden winds.
• This makes Rajasthan a dry area. The southern hills of Assam get heavy rainfall but the northern ones do not.
• This is because the southern hills force the moisture-laden winds to shed their moisture before they proceed northwards.

5. Distance from the Sea

Areas in the interiors of India have an extreme type of climate or continental climate, whereas coastal areas have equable or maritime climate.

• The effect of land breeze and sea breeze caused by differential rate of heating and cooling of land and sea are responsible for moderate climate in coastal areas.
• Thus, areas close to the sea do not experience large variations in temperature across seasons.

For example:

Kochi experiences less variations in temperature than Agra does. This is because Kochi lies on the coast, whereas Agra is far away from the sea.

Western Disturbances

Western Disturbances are temperate cyclones, which originate in West Asia and the regions near the Mediterranean Sea and move towards India. They reach India during the winter season and bring the much-needed winter rainfall over the plains and snowfall in the mountains.

7. Jet Streams

Upper air currents in the Troposphere which determine the arrival and departure of monsoons, are known as jet streams. These currents develop in the upper layers of the atmosphere.

The westerly jet stream prevails over the North Indian Plains during the winter months, while the easterly jet stream steers the tropical depression over India. These upper air circulations play a significant role in the distribution pattern of the monsoon rainfall in the subcontinent. The highest rainfall occurs along the track of these depressions

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 9 India Monsoon Phenomena And Its Mechanism

Monsoons Are Periodic Or Seasonal Winds. They Develop Because Of Differential Heating And Cooling Of The Land And The Sea. They Are Divided Into Two Wind Systems — The Summer Monsoon And The Winter Monsoon.

Summer Monsoons

In May, June and July, the plains of the Indian subcontinent are heated by the vertical rays of the sun.

• The intense heat develops a low pressure on the land. During these months, in the southern hemisphere over the Indian Ocean, a high pressure area develops.
• So, the winds blow from the Indian Ocean northward and northwestward into Asia.
• As they blow from the sea to the land, they bring heavy rainfall in some parts of the Indian subcontinent.
• The summer monsoon winds blow from south¬ west; so they are known as the ‘South-West Summer Monsoon’ or the ‘Advancing Monsoon’.

Winter Monsoons

During winter season, the conditions are just reverse of those in summers. A high pressure develops over a big landmass stretching from Central Asia up to north-west Indian plains.

• At the same time a low pressure zone develops in the Indian Ocean. As the winds blow from the land to the sea, they bring cold dry weather. They are incapable of producing rain.
• When these winds blow over seas and pass over the adjoining land, they bring some rainfall.
• The Southern Coromandel Coast (Tamil Nadu and southern tip of Andhra Pradesh) in India get rain from winter monsoons.
• The winter monsoon winds blow north-east; so the monsoon is known as the ‘North-East Winter Monsoon.’

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 9 India Major Seasons In India

India has a Monsoon type of climate which has distinct seasonal pattern marked by significant change from one season to the other. These changes are clearly visible in the interior parts of the country. The coastal areas, due to the influence of the seas do not experience much variation in temperature though there occurs ‘variation in the pattern of rainfall.

Thus, the year may be divided into four principal seasons based on monsoon variations:

1. The Hot and Dry summer (March to May).
2. The Hot and Wet or Rainy Season or the
3. South-West Monsoon (June to September).
4. The Retreating South-West Monsoon (October-November).
5. The Cold and Dry Winter Season or Northeast Monsoon (December-February)

1. The Summer Season

In India, the hot season begins in March and lasts until June. The vertical rays of the Sun move towards the Tropic of Cancer during this period.

• By 21st June it is directly over the Tropic of Cancer.
• In most parts of India, temperature ranges between 30° and 32°C. The highest day temperatures increase as the heat belt moves further north.
• In northwestern part of India, temperatures around 48°C are not uncommon.
• In south India, the hot weather is not as intense as in north India. The moderating influence of the oceans together with the Peninsular situation of south India keeps the temperatures lower than that in north India.
• The temperatures, therefore, remain between 26°C and 32°C in south India.
• There is some respite from the heat in the coastal regions due to the influence of the sea. Plateaus and hills are also relatively cool because of the elevation.
• A striking feature of the hot weather season is the strong and dusty winds, called loo, which blow during daytime over northern and north¬ western India.
• These winds have a temperature range between 45°C and 50°C which is hot enough to cause heat strokes.
• There are occasional tomado-like dust storms in Punjab and Haiyana and Uttar Pradesh.
• The thunderstorms accompanied with strong winds and heavy rainfalloccur in Assam and West Bengal.

These local winds are known as Kalbaisakhi which means ‘the calamity of the beings in the month of Baisakh’. In Assam, these storms are known as Bardoli Chheerha.

Receeding Monsoon:

2. The Rainy Monsoon Season

The South-West monsoon season is the season of general rainfall. This season lasts from June to September. The differential heating of land and sea during the summer months causes the monsoon winds to drift towards the subcontinent.

• The large landmass to the north of the Indian Ocean gets intensely heated during April and May.
• This causes the formation of an intense low system in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent.
• Since the pressure in the ocean to the south of the landmass is high, it attracts the South East (S.E.) Trade winds which prevail in the southern hemisphere.
• These S.E. Trade winds after crossing the Equator are deflected towards the right because of the Coriolis force and reach the west coast as South-West Monsoon. These winds bring heavy rainfall accompanied by violent thunder and lightning.
• This sudden violent onset of rainfall in the first week of June is termed as the Burst ofthe Monsoon. The first State to receive the monsoon showers is Kerala, and also the last to see its withdrawal.

As a result of the tapering topography of peninsular Indi,a the South-West Monsoon winds divide into two branches:

1. The Arabian Sea Branch
2. The Bay of Bengal Branch.

1. The Arabian Sea Branch:

The Arabian Sea branch enters the landmass after blowing over a vast open sea. It hits the Kerala coast in the first week of June.

• It causes heavy rainfall in the western coastal areas and the western slopes of the Western Ghats. Tamil Nadu gets less rainfall because it lies in the rain shadow of the Western Ghats.
• The Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon moves along western coastal plain and spreads over Central and northern India.

2. Bay of Bengal branch:

The Bay of Bengal branch gets deflected towards the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta by the Arakan Yoma range (Myanmar).

• Since it cannot cross the Himalayas, it moves westwards and brings rainfall along the Ganga plains. Thus, these two branches of the south-west monsoon cause rains in most parts of India.

3. Retreating Monsoon

The South-West Monsoon starts retreating from northern India in early October. Hence, the months of October and November are known for the retreating monsoon.

• This is caused by the high pressure in north-western India that leads to reversal in the direction of the monsoon winds. These winds now blow from the north-east to the south-west and are known as the retreating monsoon.
• These are land winds and don’t give rain except to coastal areas ofthe eastern coastal plain.
• They cause cyclonic rainfall along with strong winds to coastal Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
• The retreat of the monsoon is marked by clear skies and drop in night temperature. The land remains moist.
• The combination ofhigh temperature and humidity gives rise to an oppressive weather.
• This is commonly known as ‘October heat’. The day temperature rises due to clear skies. These winds give way to the NE Monsoons by December.

4. The Cold and Dry Winter Season

The cold weather season commences at the end of November and continues till March. The skies are relatively clear with dry weather. Night temperatures are low, specially in northern India, but the days are pleasantly warm.

• The mean temperature in the northern plains is below 20°C and gets even lower in Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and Haryana.
• In winter season, January is usually the coldest month. The temperature remains quite low during the winter months over the Indian sub-continent. The temperatures decrease from south to north.
• Temperatures fall below freezing point in the higher reaches of the Himalayas. Dras Valley near Kargil in Ladakh records minimum temperature of-45°C. It is the coldest place in India.

The excessive cold in north India during this season is due to the following reasons:

In the month of February, the cold winds from the Caspian Sea and Turkmenistan bring cold wave over the northwestern parts of India;

• Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan experience sub-tropical type of climate with high variation in summer and winter temperatures. Since, they are located far away from the sea, they do not experience moderating influence of the sea.
• The snowfall in the nearby Himalayan ranges creates cold wave situation.
• In Peninsular India, the average temperature lies between 20°C to 25°C and it does not have any well defined cold weather season.
• The coastal areas hardly experience any seasonal change in the distribution pattern of temperature due to the moderating influence of the sea and proximity to the Equator.
• During this season, the north east trade winds prevail over the country. These winds blow from land to sea and hence, for most parts of the country it is dry season.
• However, when these winds pass over Bay of Bengal they pick up some moisture and cause some amount of rainfall on the Coromandel Coast.
• As these winds blow from north-east to south-west, they are called the North-East Monsoon.

Distribution of Rainfall

The distribution of rainfall in India is determined by the following:

1.  The pressure conditions and the direction of the relief features;
2. The direction of the winds bearing moisture.
3. Cyclonic depression is determined by the pressure gradient.

India can be divided into four rainfall regions:

1. Heavy Rainfall Region:

• This region experiences more than 200 cm of rainfall annually and includes the following areas.
• The windward side of the Western Ghats like the Western Coastal Plains and the slopes of the Western Ghats.
• Meghalaya Hills (Garo, Khasi and Jaintia), the southern slopes of Eastern Himalayas, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and West Bengal.

2. Moderate Rainfall Region:

• This region receives rainfall ranging from 100 cm to 200 cm a year.
• The followingareas are includedinthis region:
• The northern part of Andhra Pradesh, the southern part of Tamil Nadu.
• Middle Ganga Valley, some portions of Western Ghats, Eastern Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha.

3. Low Rainfall Region:

• The rainfall in this region is scarce, vaiying from 50 to 100 cm. The areas of scanty rainfall are:
• Parts of the Deccan Plateau comprising the regions of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
• Eastern Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and Kashmir.

4. Scanty Rainfall Region:

These areas get the least rainfall, i.e., less than 50 cm annually. Desert and semi-desert areas are included in this

• img

The following areas come in this region:

• Leh in Ladakh, Southern Punjab and Western Rajasthan.
• The rain shadow regions of the Western Ghats lying in the Deccan Plateau.

Impact of Monsoon

Rains occur for over three months and the rest of the year is mostly dry. Seventy per cent of annual rainfall occurs in the rainy season. It has the following impact:

• The rains are mainly of relief type. The windward slopes of the mountains get more rainfall than the leeward side. So some areas get rainfall and other areas get either less or no rainfall.
• Only a small portion ofthe rainfall is received from sources other than the monsoon, like cyclonic rainfall and convectional rainfall.
• The quantity and the time of occurrence of rainfall cannot be predicted as the rainfall is erratic. It is because ofthis uncertainty that sometimes there are floods and sometimes droughts.
• India has an agrarian economy dependent on rainfall. A good monsoon ensures higher agricultural output and boosts Indian economy.
• A good rainfall increases the ground water level and replenishes the reservoirs, lakes and tanks. This not only benefits irrigation but also improves hydrolectric power production. Some cities like Mumbai totally depend on the South West Monsoon for water.
•  Monsoons are celebrated through many festivals in India to thank nature for the rains and a good harvest. Some of these are Harela (Uttarakhand), Onam (Kerala), Nariyal Poomima (Maharashtra), Hemis (Ladakh), Minjar (Himachal Pradesh) and Adi Perukku (Tamil Nadu).
• Pongal, Baisakhi are festivals that revolve around a good harvest as a result of good rainfall.

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 10 India: Natural Vegetation And Wildlife

Natural Vegetation refers to the plant cover that has not been disturbed over a long time, allowing its species to adjust themselves fully to the climate and soil conditions.

• Thus, grasses, shrubs, and trees, which grow on their own without any interference, constitute the natural vegetation of an area.
• There is a difference between flora, vegetation, and forest. Flora refers to plants of a particular region or period, listed as species and considered as a group.

For example:

• The Eastern Himalayas have about 4000 species of plants, which vary from tropical to temperate and Alpine with increasing altitude.
• Vegetation, on the other hand, refers to the assemblage ofplant species livinginassociation with each other in a given environmental set-up.

For example:

The redwood forests, coastal mangroves, roadside weed patches, cultivated gardens and lawns, etc., all are encompassed by the term vegetation.

The major vegetation types of the world are grouped as forests, grasslands, shrubs, and tundra.

• Forest refers to a large tract of land covered with trees and accompanying undergrowth of shrubs, herbs, and sustaining thousands of life forms, which include both plants and animals.
• In legal terminology, a forest is any land with its vegetative cover that has been so declared under a legal provision.

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 10 India: Types Of Vegetation

India has a variety of forests and natural vegetation due to variations in climatic conditions, soil types, and relief features.

The Western Ghats and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are marked with tropical rainforests; the Himalayas have temperate vegetation; the desert and semi-desert regions of Rajasthan have a wide variety of bushes and thorny vegetation; and the Delta regions have tropical forests and mangroves.

The country can be divided into five major vegetation regions, which are:

• Tropical Evergreen
• Tropical Deciduous
• Tropical Desert
• Littoral; and
• Montane

1. Tropical Evergreen or Rain Forests

Climatic Conditions:

These forests are found in the hot wet humid areas where the annual rainfall is more than 250 cm, average annual temperature is between 25°C and 27°C and average annual humidity exceeds 77 per cent.

Distribution:

Heavy rainfall areas of the western slopes of the Western Ghats, hills of north-eastern region, parts of West Bengal, Odisha and the island groups of Lakshadweep, the Andaman and Nicobar and Tamil Nadu coast.

Characteristic Features:

These forests have the following characteristic features:

• They are dense, multi-layered, and have many types of trees and shrubs.
• Trees reach great heights of more than 60 m or above.
• The carpet layer of herbs and grasses cannot grow because ofthe dense canopy of trees, which does not allow enough sunlight to reach the ground.
• These forests appear green all year round. The trees in these forests do not have a fixed time to shed their leaves, to flower or to produce fruit.
• The main variety of trees found in these forests include rosewood, ebony, mahogany, toon, chaplas, sissoo, gurjan, telsur, etc.

Economic Value:

Tropical Evergreen forests produce various plant species of high economic value. The timber produced is hard, durable and fine-grained. However, due to tangled mass of canes, palms, bamboos, ferns and climbers along with the lack of means of transport, these forests have not been fully exploited.

2. Tropical Deciduous Forests

These forests are also known as the Monsoon forests. They are the most widespread forests in India. Based on the availability of water, these forests are further categorised into two types: the moist deciduous forests; and the dry deciduous forests.

1. The Moist Deciduous Forests

Climatic Conditions:

Such forests are found in areas with moderate or low annual rainfall of 100 cm to 200 cm and a mean annual temperature of 24°C and 27°C, and a humidity percentage of 50 to 80.

Distribution:

These forests are found in North-eastern States along the foothills of Himalayas, Jharkhand, West Odisha and Chhattisgarh and eastern slopes of the Western Ghats.

Characteristic Features:

These forests have the following features:

• The trees in these forests shed their leaves from six to eight weeks during spring and early summer when the storage of water is acute.
• Further, the sub-soil water is not enough for the trees to keep their leaves all year round.

A particular species can be found over a large area. The common trees of such forests are sal, teak, arjun, shisham, mahua, mulberry, palas, semul, and sandalwood.

Economical Value:

Tropical Deciduous Forests are commercially the most exploited. Besides providing valuable timber, they provide various other products. Sandalwood found in these forests is in great demand in India and abroad.

2. Dry Deciduous Forests

Climatic Conditions:

These forests are found in areas having a mean annual temperature of 23°C to 27°C, annual rainfall between 70 cm to 100 cm and humidity between 51 to 58 per cent.

Distribution:

These forests are found in the rainier parts of the Peninsular Plateau and the plains of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.

Characteristic Features:

• These forests thrive between moist deciduous forests (in the east) and tropical thorn forests (in the west).
• On the wetter margins, these forests have a transition into moist deciduous, while on the drier margins they degrade into thorn forests.
• In the northern Indian plains and in the areas of higher rainfall in the Peninsular Plateau, these forests have open stretches in which teak and other trees are interspersed with patches of grass.
• During the dry season, the trees in these forests shed their leaves completely and give the forests a look of a vast grassland with naked trees.
• The common trees of these forests are teak, tendu, sal, rosewood, amaltas, bel, khair, axlewood, etc

Economical Value:

The trees of these forests provide timber, fruits and other useful products. Large tracts of these forests have been cleared for agricultural activities

3. Tropical Desert Forests

These are also known as Tropical Thorn Forests.

Climatic Conditions:

These forests are found in the areas which receive rainfall less than 50 cm, the mean annual temperature ranges between 25°C to 27°C and has humidity below 47 per cent.

Distribution:

These forests are chiefly distributed in south-western Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, central and eastern Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

Characteristic Features:

These forests have the following features:

• These forests have Xerophytic vegetation. Due to paucity of rainfall, the trees are stunted with large patches of coarse grasses.
• In these forests, plants remain leafless for most part of the year and look like scrub vegetation.
• The important trees found here include babool, date palm, her, khair, neem, khejri, kanju, cactii, kokko,etc.

Economical Value:

• Ber fruit is eaten raw or made into pickle or beverages. Its timber is hard, strong, tough and durable.
• It is used to make legs for bedsteads, boat ribs, agricultural implements, charcoal, etc. Babool bark and gum have medicinal value.
• Date Palm is eaten raw and also used as an astringent, as a decoction, syrup or paste for sore throat, cold, fever, etc.
• Neem bark and roots have medicinal properties. Neem oil, leaves, and neem extracts are used to manufacture health and beauty products.
• It is also used as an insecticide

4. Littoral or Tidal Forests

Climatic Conditions:

These forests are found in wet marshy areas, in river deltas, in tidal or other swampy areas and along the sea coasts.

Distribution:

These forests are chiefly distributed in the deltas of large rivers on the eastern coast and in pockets on the western coast in saline swamps of the Sunderbans in the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta in West Bengal and coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.

Characteristic Features:

These forests have the following features:

• They have mainly evergreen species of varying density and height, usually associated with wetness.
• The tree trunks are supported by a number of stilt-like roots which remain submerged under water during high tide and can be seen during low tide.
• They have profuse growth with tangle of climbers, which is an adaptation for survival in soft and shifting mud.

The important trees include keora, amur, bhara, rhizophora, screw pines, canes and palms, sundari, agar, etc.

• Mangrove forests grow along the coasts in the salt marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats and estuaries.
• They are found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and West Bengal. Other areas of significance include the Mahanadi, the Godavari, and the Krishna deltas.
• These forests have Sundari trees, after the name of which these forests are known as ‘Sunderbans’ in the Ganga Delta.

Economical Value:

Mangrove trees are utilised for fuel, whereas sundari trees provide har,d durable timber

5. Montane Forests

In the mountain regions temperature decreases with altitude. This has a corresponding effect on the natural vegetation of the mountain regions. The Himalayas have a variety of trees from sub-tropical to Tundra.

Climatic Conditions:

These forests are found in areas where annual temperature is 12°C to 13°C, rainfall is between 100 and 300 cms and annual humidity is between 56 and 65 per cent.

Relief:

These forests occur at an altitude between 1000m to 4000m.

Distribution:

These forests cover the entire Himalayan zone from Ladakh to Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. In the Peninsular region, they are found in the Vindhyas, Nilgiris, and the Western Ghats.

Characteristics Features:

These forests have the following features:

• These forests contain mixed species of broad-leafed evergreen trees and conifers. They also contain scrubs, creepers, and ferns.
• At the foothills of the Himalayas, Deciduous forests are found.
• At an altitude of 1000m to 2000m they are the moist temperate forests.
• In the hilly areas of West Bengal and Uttarakhand, evergreen broad leaf trees like chestnut and oak are found
• Between the altitude of 1500m and 1750m, coniferous trees like Chir pine is an important tree. At an altitude of 2250m and 3000m blue pine and spruce are found.
• At higher altitudes, alpine forests and pastures are found followed by mosses and lichens. Beyond the snowline, no vegetation is found.
• In the Peninsular regions, the area is only about 1500 m in height and vegetation varies from tropical to temperate forests.
• The important trees found in these forests include magnolia, laurel, cinchona, wattle, jamun, plum, etc

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 10 India: Importance Of Forests

Forests have the following importance in our daily life:

Productive Functions:

Various trees provide us with products such as fruits, leaves, roots and tubers of plants. Wood is used for making furniture in houses as well as industrial units.

• Wood and bamboo pulp are used for manufacturing paper and paper boards. Wood is used indiscriminately as a source ofenergy for cooking and for providing warmth.
• Forest products, otherthan timberand firewood, include fibres, essential oils, oil seeds and edible plants.
• Bamboos provide a means of livelihood for the tribals who make mats, baskets, ropes, etc., using bamboo.
• It is also used in the manufacture of rayon (yams and artificial silk fibres).

Protective Functions:

• Forests control the water flow.
• The thick layer of humus in the forests prevents evaporation of water.
• The humus acts as a natural sponge and helps to soak the rainwater in the soil.
• The forest with its complex root system binds the soil, thereby preventing soil erosion and loss of nutrients.
• The thick humus over the years is formed by the decay of forest litter, which increases the fertility of the soil.

Regulatory Functions:

• The trees use carbon dioxide from respiration and release oxygen during photosynthesis.
• The oxygen released by the trees is used by the animal world.
• Thus, the trees perpetuate the cycles of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the biosphere.
• They also regulate the water cycle. The trees absorb water from the ground, release water (during transpiration) into the atmosphere, which helps to form clouds and precipitation, which brings water again into the soil, thus completing the Water Cycle.

Accessory Functions:

Accessory functions of the trees means that the forests provide habitat for the wildlife. Forests also provide aesthetics and recreation to human beings through National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries and Biosphere Reserves

Forest Conservation

• Man has been overexploiting the forests to satisfy not only his needs but also his greed. This has led to a decline in the forest cover.
• Due to rapid population growth and the demand for more food, forests have been cleared to convert them into agricultural land.
• Forests have been converted into pasture land for expanding dairy farming and cattle ranching.
• Overgrazing in the forests by animals in the tropical and sub-tropical regions has resulted into large-scale degradation of natural vegetation.
• Ever-increasing demand for timber for various purposes due to industrial expansion and urbanisation has added to the problem of deforestation.
• Construction of multi-purpose river valley projects has led to the submergence of land and the destruction of forested riversides.

All these factors have led to the decline in forests, which have the following effects:

Decline in the forests has led to a decline in forest productivity.

• Forests influence human environment by moderating climate, regulating water supply, maintaining the fertility of soil and purifying air.
• Absence of forest cover leads to soil erosion, which increases load of the rivers.
• The increased surface load reduces water in the rivers for human use.
• Siltation causes floods which destroy property, crops and living beings.
• Lack of forest cover reduces precipitation, thus causing droughts.
• Forests use carbon dioxide during photosynthesis but the absence of forests allows more cpncentration ofcarbon dioxide in the atmosphere because of its non¬ consumption.
• Thus, deforestation increases greenhouse effect in the atmosphere.
• This raises the temperature ofthe Earth’s surface and of the atmosphere, leading to global warming and its harmful consequences.
• Reduced forests have led to the loss of habitat for animals.

Natural vegetation of India:

Hence, the conservation of forests is of vital importance for the survival and prosperity of humankind.

Conservation Measures

To arrest deforestation and stop the diversion of forest lands for non-forest uses, the following conservation practices must be undertaken:

1. Increasing the Area Under Forests:

Loss of forests can be remedied by a massive programme of tree plantation. Planting trees on degraded lands and land that is unfit for agriculture will not only help in improving the environment but will also relieve harvesting pressure on these forests.

2. Afforestation around Industrial Units:

The level of pollution is much higher in areas where industries are located. For example, cities having Iron and Steel Plants, pollute the air with particulate matter, sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and hydrogen fluoride.

• Besides, these steel plants emit significant dust levels of about 20 kg per metric ton of steel.
• To prevent pollution, trees are planted around the cities having Iron and Steel Industries.
• The trees act as a barrier for the dust and purify the air.

3. Stopping Indiscriminate Felling of Trees:

There should be a strict ban on the felling of naturally growing trees. If a tree has to be cut, the necessary permission has to be obtained. Besides, proper replacement of trees by planting saplings at least in the ratio of 1:10 (1 tree to 10 saplings) should be undertaken.

4. Using Alternative Sources of Energy:

In many parts of the world including India, trees are felled for providing firewood. So, in order to conserve forests, we must use non-conventional or renewable sources of energy, like solar energy, tidal energy, hydel energy, etc.

5. Adopting Social Forestry and Agro Forestry:

• Social Forestry refers to the management and protection of forests and afforestation on barren lands to help in the environmental, social and rural development.
• Agro-forestry is being practised to provide conservation of the land and its improvement to achieve a combined production of forest and agricultural crops.

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 10 India: Wildlife

Wildlife traditionally refers to undomesticated animal species, but has come to include all plants, fungi, and other organisms that grow or live wild in an area without being introduced by humans.

• However, the term wildlife in popular usage refers to the wild, undomesticated animals living in their natural habitats such as forests, grasslands, oceans, seas, etc.
• India has a rich variety of animals. There are about 81,000 species ofanimals spread across the country.
• It includes about 2500 species of fresh and marine water fish and nearly 1200 species of birds, besides a large number of amphibians, reptiles, mammals and small insects and worms.
• India is home to Royal Bengal tigers, Asiatic lions, Snow leopards, One-horned rhinoceroses, various species of deer, including Chital, Hangul, Swamp deer or Barasingha, the Indian elephant, pythons, saltwater crocodiles, alligators, blackbuck, golden langur, etc.
• Many species of animals in India have become extinct and there are many others facing the danger of extinction.

All these species have been grouped into three categories:

Endangered Species are species that are the imminent danger of extinction. These include the Asiatic lion, found in the Gir National Park (Gujarat) and in the Chandra Prabha Wildlife Sanctuary (Uttar Pradesh).

• The other endangered species include the one-homed rhino, the hangul, the black buckand the great Indian bustard.
• Threatened Species are those that are likely to become endangered, at least locally, within the foreseeable future.
• India contains 172 or 2.9 per cent of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)- designated threatened species.
• These include the Asian elephant, the Asiatic lion, Bengal tiger, Indian rhinoceros, mugger crocodile and Indian white-rumped vulture.
• Vulnerable Species are naturally rare or have been locally depleted by human activities to a level that puts them at risk.

The reasons for the animals getting endangered and their extinction are the following:

Destruction of the natural habitats of animals due to expanding agriculture, urbanisation, and industrialisation. Overgrazing by animals that convert the grasslands into deserts. Poaching for meat, skin, fur, ivory, and horns.

Conservation of Wildlife

Due to the continuous increase in the number of endangered species, many steps have been taken to protect and manage wildlife in India.

• Though India has an ancient tradition of conservation, the modern concept of conservation was developed in 1952 with the establishment of the Indian Board of Wildlife.
• Since then, several measures have been taken to conserve wildlife.
• The first week of October is observed as Wildlife Week every year.

National Park, Wildlife Sanctuary, and Biosphere Reserve- a Comparison:

The following two strategies are used for the conservation of biodiversity and wildlife in India:

In-Situ Conservation

The in-situ conservation means conservation of wildlife in its natural habitat. It emphasises the protection ofthe ecosystems ofthe original habitats or natural environment.

• The in-situ approach includes protection of a typical ecosystem through a network of protected areas on land or sea.
• These are managed through state or other effective agencies. India has 381 protected areas, covering about 4.7 per cent of the land surface.

The biosphere reserves, national parks, and wildlife sanctuaries are included in the protected areas.

• National Parks:
  • A national park is an area that is strictly reserved for the betterment of the wildlife and where human activities like forestry, grazing or cultivation are not permitted. India has 104 national parks encompassing an area of 40, 501 sq. km.
  • India’s first national park was established in 1936 as Hailey National Park, now known as Jim Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand of these national parks, some of the popular ones include Kaziranga National Park (Assam), Gir Forest National Park (Gujarat), Bandhavgarh National Park (Madhya Pradesh), Ranthambore National Park (Rajasthan), Silent Valley (Kerala), Bandipur National Park (Karnataka), Rajaji National Park (Uttarakhand) and Dachigam National Park (Jammu and Kashmir).
• Wildlife Sanctuaries:
  • A wildlife sanctuary is a protected area that is reserved for the conservation only of wildlife — animals and plant species.
  • Human activities like harvesting or timber collection or minor forest products and private ownership rights are allowed. India has 543 wildlife sanctuaries.
  • These include 50 tiger reserves governed by Project Tiger.

Biosphere Reserves

A biosphere reserve is a special area of land or coastal environment in which multiple use of land is permitted by dividing it into certain zones.

• The natural or core zone consists of an undisturbed and legally protected ecosystem.
• The buffer zone surrounds the core area and is managed to accommodate a greater variety of resource use strategies.
• The transition zone, the outermost part ofthe biosphere reserve, is an area of active cooperation between the management and the local people.
• Here, protection is granted not only to the flora and fauna of the protected region, but also to the human communities who inhabit these regions.
• India has 18 Biosphere Reserves, which protect large areas of natural habitat and often include one or more National Parks.

The basic objectives of national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and biosphere reserves are:

• Protection of natural habitats through
• Maintenance ofthe viable number of species in protected areas.
• Establishment and protection of areas through legislation for the conservation of wildlife.
• Educating the public on wildlife protection.
• Conducting research in specific areas of wildlife.

Ex-situ Conservation

Ex-situ conservation means conservation ofwildlife outside its natural habitat. The conservation takes place in captivity under man’s supervision.

• Some times, the population ofspecies may decline or may become extinct due to genetic or environmental factors such as inbreeding, habitat loss, disease and over-exploitation.
• In such cases, in-situ conservation may not prove to be effective and a species can be protected from becoming extinct only through maintaining individuals in artificial conditions under human care.

Generally, botanical gardens, zoos, aquariums, parks, agricultural research centres, forest research centres, etc., are the artificial habitats for ex-situ conservation.

Wildlife Conservation Projects

Many projects are being carried out in India to prevent the extinction of some endangered wild animal species.

Some of them are as follows:

• Project Tiger: “Project Tiger’ was launched by the Central Government in April 1973, to save the tiger from extinction in India.
• Gir Lion Project: This project is beingcarried on at Gir forest in the Saurashtra peninsula of Gujarat to save lions in the region.
• Crocodile Project: This project aims at the conservation and management of crocodiles, through incubation of eggs and rearing. It is being conducted in certain sanctuaries of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
• Project Elephant: This project aims to preserve several elephants and identify elephant reserves to protect them.

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 8 India: Geographical Features

Tndia is huge country having a variety of physical Lfeatures, climates, wildlife, resources, races languages and religions. With all its physical dimensions and varied characteristics, India is land of unity in diversity. It is now the most populous country in the world and the seventh largest in size after Russia, Canada, China, the USA, Brazil and Australia.

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 8 India Location And Extent

India lies entirely in the Northern Hemisphere. The mainland of India extends between latitudes 8°4’ N and 37°6′ N and longitudes 68°7′ E and 97°25′ E. The north-south extent of the mainland from Kashmir to Kanyakumari is about 3214 km, whereas the east-west extent from the Rann of Kutch to Arunachal Pradesh is about 2933 km.

• The Tropic of Cancer passes almost through the middle of the country and divides it into two halves, the tropical zone in the south and sub-tropical in the north.
• Lakshadweep off the western coast and the Andaman and Nicobar islands, located in the Bay of Bengal also form a part of India.
• India is surrounded by waterbodies on three sides, i.e., the Bay of Bengal in the southeast, the Indian Ocean in the south and the Arabian Sea in the southwest, covering a coastline of about 6100 km.
• The total coastline, including those of the islands, is about 7516 km. The land mass of India has an area of 3.28 million square km.
• India’s total area accounts for about 2.4 per cent of the total geographical area of the world.
• India lies strategically at the head of the Indian Ocean, wholly in the northern hemisphere and at the centre of the Eastern hemisphere.
• Due to its strategic location, India commands the sea routes between Europe and Africa on the one hand, and Southeast Asia, Far East and the Oceania on the other.

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 8 India Neighbours

India is situated on the western fringe ofthe Indian Ocean. It lies midway between South East Asia and South West Asia.

• India shares its land borders with Pakistan, China, Nepal and Bhutan in the north and Bangladesh and Myanmar in the east.
• The island nation of Sri Lanka is located off the southern tip of the Indian peninsula. It is separated from India by the Palk Strait.
• India’s Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia. To the south of Lakshadweep lies Maldives

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 8 India Political Divisions

India, a Union of States, is a sovereign, secular, Democratic Republic with a Parliamentary form of Government. It comprises 28 States and Eight Union Territories.

Delhi is the National Capital Territory of India.

The Union Territories are administered by the President of India through an Administrator appointed by him/her.

• The names of the States and Union Territories and their capitals are given in the table above.
• In terms of size, Rajasthan is the largest State whereas Goa is the smallest state of India. Rajasthan is followed by Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh.
• Among the Union Territories, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal ranks first whereas Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea is the smallest.

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 8 India: Physical Divisions

India is a land of varied topography comprising high mountain ranges, mighty rivers, fertile plains, dense forests and plateaus.

It has five clearly defined physiographic divisions:

1. The Himalayas
2.  The Plains of Northern India
3. The Peninsular Plateau
4. The Coastal Plains;and
5. The Islands

1. The Himalayas:

The northern mountain wall is known as the Himalayan Range. The Himalayas are young fold mountains consisting of three parallel ranges, which are clearly distinguished on the basis of their height.

The Himadri:

It is known as the Himadri because it remains covered with snow throughout the year.

• It is also called the Great Himalayas or the Inner Himalayas.
• It forms the northernmost part of the Himalayan range and is one of the world’s highest mountain ranges.
• This range includes the world’s highest peak, Mt. Everest (8,848M). Other , peaks with heights over 8000 m include Makalu, Mansalu, Annapurna in Nepal; Nanga Parbat and Kanchenjunga in India
• It also has some passes in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Sikkim. It includes the Karakoram pass in Ladakh and the Nathu La in Sikkim.
• It has a number of glaciers such as the Gangothri and the Yamunotri in Uttarakhand. These glaciers are the perennial source of water for the Ganga and Yamuna rivers, respectively
• Sharda, Ghagra, Kosi and Gandak rivers originate from this range

 The Himachal

This range is also known as the Himachal Himalayas or the Middle or Lesser Himalayas.

• It runs parallel to the Himadri and lies to its south.
• Doons lie between the Himachal and Shiwalik ranges. They are flat bottomed longitudinal valleys. Dehra Dun is one such valley.
• This range has a vast vegetative cover. A number of peaks having elevation of more than 5,050 m are located in this range. They are covered with snow throughout the year.
• Some of the important ranges in this region are the Pir Panjal, Dhaula Dhar, Mussoorie range, and Mahabharat range (Nepal).
• Most of the hill stations in India lie in this range. They include Shimla, Mussoorie, Nainital, Almora, Ranikhet, Chakrata ,Chail, etc.,
• The valleys here include Kullu, Jammu and Srinagar

The Shiwalik Range:

• It is also called the Outer Himalayas.
• It is not a continuous range.
• The slopes facing the subcontinent are
• steep, while those facing north are gentle.
• It is known by different names in different
• places — Jammu hills in Jammu and Miri,
• Aborand Mishmi hillsinArunachal Pradesh.
• The average elevation is about 1000 m above sea level.

Some of the valleys that fall in this region include Udhampur in Jammu region and the Doon valleys.

Significance of the Himalayas

The Himalayas act as an effective climatic barrier by blocking the inflow of cold, dry air masses into northern India during winter, thus protecting northern India from severe cold in winters.

• Himalayas also deflect the moisture-laden monsoon winds and cause the moist winds to bring rain to the North Indian plains and the Brahmaputra valley.
• The glaciers in the Himalayas give rise to many perennial rivers which include Ganga, Yamuna, Sharda, Ghagra, Kosi, Gandak and Brahmaputra.
• The Himalayan rivers form rapids and waterfalls and provide ideal conditions for the creation of reservoirs, which are utilised for the generation of hydroelectricity by constructing dams across the rivers.
• The Himalayas form a defensive rampart of India against invasion by land.
• The Himalayan scenery is among the most spectacular in the world. It attracts thousands of tourists from India and abroad. Most of the summer resorts, known as hill stations and a number of sacred shrines are located in the Himalayas.

The Himalayas are rich inforest resources. They yield good quality timber, soft and hard woods, paper pulp, resins, turpentine oil, various medicinal plants, etc.

• The Himalayas Eire home to a wide variety ofwild animals like yaks, snow leopards, bears, red pandas, tigers, elephants, etc.
• The Himalayas have rich reserves of important minerals. Copper, lead, zinc, bismuth, Eintimony, nickel, cobalt and tungsten Eire found in the eastern and western Himalayas of good quality is found in the Kashmir valley.
• The Himalayas also have gold, silver, and precious stones like sapphires and beryl.
• The rivers that flow from the Himalayas through the Northern Plains deposit alluvium in their flood plains and make them fertile

The Plains of Northern India

The plains of northern India comprise a vast stretch of level and fertile land, formed by the alluvium deposited by the rivers. They include the lowlands of the three major rivers — the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra together with their tributEiries.

The river Indus has its source in the Kailash Range, a little to the west of Manasarovar Lake. It has five tributaries, namely, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej and Beas.

• The Ganga rises in the Gangotri glacier in the Himalayas. Cutting through the Shivalik range, it enters the plains at Haridwar (Uttarakhand).
• The main tributaries of Ganga are Yamuna (which joins Ganga on its right bank at Allahabad), Son, Ramganga, Ghaghra, Gomti, Gandak, Kosi and Mahananda.
• The Brahmaputra river rises in Tibet near lake Manasarovar and flows eastwEird as Tsangpo.
• In Assam, the river Brahmaputra is joined by numerous streams, namely, the Dihang, Dibang and Lohit. Its other tributaries Eire, Tista, Dhansiri and Manas. On the basis of regional characteristics,

The Plains of Northern India can be sub-divided into the following areas:

The Punjab Plains:

In India, these plains lie in Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh. A significant feature of these plains is the doabs of the five tributaries ofthe Indus —Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej and Beas. Punjab derives its name from these, i.e., the land of five rivers. The

Rajasthan Plains:

These include the Marusthali or the Great Indian Desert or The Thar Desert. It is a sandy desert and is surrounded by the Sutlej in the north-west, the Aravalli range in the east, the Indus Valley in the west and the Rann of Kutch in the south.

• These plains extend over the north-west India (Rajasthan desert) and* eastern Pakistan.
• Cultivation is done in small patches in this area with the water provided by small streams which originate from the Aravalli during the rainy season. These fertile tracts are known as Rohi.

The only significant river is Luni. The area north of Luni is a sandy plain. There exists an area of inland drainage on the north of the Luni basin.

• This is because the rivers of the area do not have sufficient water to reach the sea and dryup or disappear into the sand.
• These plains are dotted with several salt lakes on the eastern edge of the desert, such as the Sambhar, Kuchaman and Didwana.
• The Sambhar lake is the largest lake which lies on the outskirts of Jaipur.

The Ganga Plains:

• These plains extend from the Yamuna river in the west to the western borders of Bangladesh, covering a distance of about 1,400 km in the States of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Delhi, partly Jharkhand and West Bengal.
• They consist of several regions, i.e., the Ganga-Yamuna doab, Awadh Plains and Mithila Plains.
• These plains have been formed by the sediments brought down by the rivers Ganga, Yamuna, Ghagra and their tributaries.
• These rivers make the Ganga Plains one of the most fertile plains in the world.

The Brahmaputra Plains:

These low-level plains extend in Assam for about 640 km.

• They have been formed by deposits from the Brahmaputra River and its tributaries and are bordered by high mountains.
• The small, meandering streams of the north form marshy areas. In some places on the plain, many steeply rising hillocks are found. Besides, there are several riverine islands, including Majuli, which is the largest river island in the world
• The Brahmaputra Basin is sometimes said to be the continuation ofthe northern plains towards the east.
• It is demarcated by the Eastern Himalayas of Arunachal Pradesh in the north, the Garo-Khasi-Jaintia and Mikir Hills in the south, Patkai and Naga Hills in the east and the lower Ganga Plain in the west.

Significance of the Northern Plains

The Northern plains are among the most level and extensive plains in the world.

They are of immense significance due to the following reasons: 

The northern plains are the most favourable for human settlement as they are endowed with fertile soil, numerous rivers and favourable climate. That is why these plains support one of the most densely populated regions of the world.

• The fertile soils, perennial water resources and favourable climate have made the northern plains rich agricultural land.
• Many multi-purpose dams have been constructed across some of the rivers to provide water for irrigation and to generate electricity.
• The use of irrigation and modern facilities has made Punjab, Haryana and western UP the granaries of India.
• The Northern plains have been socially and religiously quite significant due to their vast literature, art and architecture and sacred rivers.
• Many religious and historical cities such as Haridwar, Ayodhya, Varanasi, Allahabad, Mathura and Patna are situated along the rivers of the northern plains. Buddhism and Jainism flourished in these plains.
• The plains are almost level, which allows for the construction of roadways and railways and makes rivers in the plains navigable, which allows easy transportation and thus, promotes trade and commerce.
• The flatness of the land also allows easy access for communication facilities

The Peninsular Plateau

The Peninsular Plateau is the largest and the oldest of all the physiographic divisions. It lies to the south of the northern plains. It is triangular in shape.

• Its north-west limit is marked by the Aravalli range, and its northern extreme has the raised Bundelkhand Plateau.
• At its western and eastern ends are the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats, respectively.
• The Peninsular Plateau has two main divisions — the Central Highlands in the north west and the Deccan Plateau in the south, separated by the Vindhya and Satpura Ranges.
• The Chhotanagpur Plateau forms the eastern limit of the Peninsular Plateau. It is rich in mineral resources and is called the ‘Ruhr of India’

Central Highlands:

The part of the Peninsular Plateau lying to the north of the Narmada, covering a major area of the Malwa Plateau, is known as the Central Highlands.

• The Central Highlands are wider in the west but narrower in the east.
• The eastward extensions of this plateau are known as the Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand.
• The Malwa Plateau is flat-topped region bound by the Vindhya and Satpura Ranges in the south, the Aravalli Range in the west and the Chhotanagpur Plateau in the east.
• In the north the Malwa plateau gradually merges with the northern plains.
• It is formed by the lava flows. The western part of the region is drained by the Mahi river, the middle part by the Chambal river and the eastern part by the Betwa river.
• The plateau is broken by ravines (a deep, narrow gorge with steep sides) mainly in the Chambal, Yamuna and Banas valleys.

The Deccan Plateau:

The Deccan Plateau is India’s largest plateau. It is a triangular landmass that lies to the south of the river Narmada.

• It occupies the land between the Western and the Eastern Ghats and south of the Mahadeo, Maikal, Vindhya and Satpura ranges.
• The river Narmada flows through a narrow rift valley between the Vindhya and Satpura ranges.
• Another important river of the region, i.e., Tapti, flows through a valley south of the Satpura range.
• These two rivers flow through hard rocks and are unable to form distributaries before they enter the Arabian Sea.

The Western Ghats and The Eastern Ghats:

The Deccan Plateau is bound by hills on the west and the east, called the Western Ghats orSahyadri and the Eastern Ghats, respectively. The Western Ghats run along the west coast from the south of the Tapti river valley to Kanyakumari. The Eastern Ghats stretch from the Mahanadi Valley to the Nilgiris in the south.

• The Western Ghats are continuous and can be crossed through passes like Thai, Bhor and the Pal ghats.
• The Eastern Ghats, however, are discontinuous and irregular. They are dissected by rivers draining into the Bay of Bengal.
• The highest peaks of the Western Ghats are Anai Mudi and the Doda Betta, whereas Mahendragiri is the highest peak in the Eastern Ghats. The meeting point of the Western and the Eastern Ghats is in the Nilgiri hills and has the highest point at Doda Betta peak.
• A unique feature of the Deccan Plateau is the Black soil region, known as the Deccan Trap, which extends over Maharashtra and parts of Gujarat, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh.
• It is of volcanic origin and hence the rocks are igneous. In fact, these rocks have denuded over time and have led to the formation of Black soil.
• There are many rivers in the Deccan Plateau. Some rivers flow east to end up in the Bay of Bengal. They are greater in number than the west-flowing rivers, have wide catchment areas and form large deltas.
• These include the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, and the Cauvery (Kaveri).
• The west flowing rivers of the Peninsular India are smaller and fewer in number. These Peninsular Rivers include the Narmada, the Tapti, the Luni, the Sabarmati and the Mahi.
• They fall into the Arabian Sea. They do not form deltas but only form estuaries. This is because the west-flowing rivers, especially the Narmada and the Tapi, flow through hard rocks and are not able to form distributaries before they enter the Arabian Sea.

Difference Between Westren Ghats and Eastren Ghats:

Significance of the Peninsular Plateau

The Peninsular Plateau of India has been immensely contributing to the prosperity of the country due to its richness in minerals, fauna, forests, etc.

• Peninsular India is a depository a variety of minerals, such as iron, bauxite, mica, manganese, copper, chromium and coal, iron, gold, chromium and porcelain clay, coal, mica, graphite and corundum.
• The north-western plateau ofthe Peninsular India is covered with basaltic lava which is rich in iron. Soil formed of basaltic lava, i.e., black soil,l is conducive for the cultivation of cotton.
• This soil also facilitates the production of tea, rubber, coffee and millets. Tobacco, groundnuts and oilseeds are abundantly grown in the Peninsular region.
• The highlands of the plateau are covered with different types of forests. Ebony, mahogany, came, bamboo, eucalyptus, sal, and sandalwood are prominent commercial timbers of the region, while tall grasses, shrubs and herbs provide fodder.
• The Peninsular rivers are marked bya number of waterfalls which are being harnessed for the production of hydroelectricity. The Western Ghats are among the finest faunal tracts of India.
• These include the Nilgiri Ibex, the black monkeys and the lion¬ tailed macaque. Forests in the Peninsular region are also home to wild elephants, sambar, chital, leopards and tigers

The Coastal Plains

The Deccan Plateau has a coastal strip in the east and in the west, which are known as the coastal plains.

• They run along the coastline of the Peninsula from the Rann of Kutch in the west to the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta in the east.
• The Western Coastal plains lie on the coastal strip along the Arabian Sea and west of the Western Ghats while the Eastern Coastal plains lie between the Bay of Bengal and the Eastern Ghats.
• The two plains meet at the tip of the peninsula, i.e., at Cape Comorin.

The Western Coastal Plains:

They consist of three sections, The northern part of the coast is called the Konkan Coast (Mumbai-Goa), the central stretch is called the Kanara Coast, while the southern stretch is called the Malabar Coast. The Malabar Coast is known for the lagoons or backwaters called kayals, such as the Ashtamudi and Vembanad lakes.

Eastern Coastal Plains:

The coastal areas along the Bay of Bengal are broad and more level.

The area is rocky, except for the delta region and is highly dissected by small but fast flowing rivers. Several depositional features such as spits, lagoons and offshore bars are found along the coast.

• The prominent deltas are those of the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri.
• These deltas are not suitable for harbours as their mouths are full of silt. There are several lakes on the East Coast.
• These include the Chilka lake in Odisha, and Kolleru and Pulicat in Andhra Pradesh.
• From the mouth of the Ganga to Nellore, the plains are called Northern Circars. These plains lie between the Mahanadi and the Krishna rivers.
• The southern part of the Eastern Coastal Plains from Nellore to Kanyakumari are called Coromandel Coast in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu

Difference Between Westren Coastal Plains and Eastren Coastal Plains:

Significance of the Coastal Plains

They are the sources of precious minerals.

• Gujarat is famous for producing salt.
• The sands of Kerala coast have a large quantity of Monazite which is used for nuclear power.
• The sedimentary rocks of these plains are said to contain large deposits of mineral oil.
• The ports along the coasts account for 98 per cent of the international trade.
• Fisheries are set up in these areas

Islands

Besides the mainland, India has two groups of islands, i.e., the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and the Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea.

• The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are a group of more than 300 islands out of which 265 are uninhabited.
• The two groups of islands are separated by the Ten degree channel. This channel is named after 10°N latitude which passes over it.
• The Andaman Islands lie in the Bay of Bengal 1,255 km from Kolkata and 1,190 km from Chennai.
• Five large islands grouped together are called the Great Andamans and to the south is the island of Little Andaman.
• The Nicobar Islands are situated to the south of the Andamans, 121 km from Little Andaman. There are 19 islands, 7 uninhabited, with a total area of 1,841 sq km.
• The islands are usually divided into three sub-groups: southern, central and northern. The chief islands are Great Nicobar and Car Nicobar. These islands are of volcanic origin. The only active volcano of India is found on the Barren Island.
• Lakshadweep consists of a group of 36 islands, of which only 11 are inhabited and located about 280 to 480 kms off Kerala coast.
• It was constituted as a Union Territory in 1956 as the Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi Islands, and renamed in November 1973 as Lakshadweep. The northern portion is called the Amindivis.
• The remaining islands are called the Laccadives (including Minicoy Islands).